After a gap in posting of more than a year, it's time to refresh and renew. Stand by for a new name and new address when I've finished working on it.
I wasn't entirely idle for the last year though, managing to visit Australia and go trekking in Nepal. I also gained an advanced motorcycle qualification and started learning to play the saxaphone.
So, coming soon...
Tuesday, 29 January 2013
Friday, 2 September 2011
Distraction
I haven't posted for a few days, for which I apologise. I suppose I've been distracted by other things, which brings me onto the subject of this post - distraction.
The statistics suggest that distraction is a contributing cause to over half of all aviation accidents. So , as an industry, we clearly need to try to improve our performance.
An important skill for pilots is self discipline, and this is the skill that needs to come to the fore in avoiding distraction. Many airline's procedures enforce a 'sterile cockpit', whereby all extraneous conversation is banned during busy phases of flight. Typical rules are 'sterile' below 10,000', or 'sterile' in all climbs and descents. When I review distraction based incidents that I have been involved in, the vast majority would not have happened if, on that day, I had been fully adhering to the sterile cockpit rule as well as I normally aim to do.
The lesson is clear - do not cause distraction by breaking the sterile cockpit rule, and do not join in when others risk distraction by breaking the sterile cockpit rule.
Of course distraction isn't only self-induced. When a warning system massage occurs, it is inevitable that all the crew will be drawn to the message, whether it be a remote warning, or on ECAM/EICAS. Once again though, we need to train ourselves to have the self discipline to react correctly. The PF either has to steel them-self to resist the temptation to get involved or, if workload is low, only have a quick look in order to gather some independent information.
This is why judgement and self discipline are such crucial pilot skills. If PF gets involved too much with identifying and analysing the problem, then distraction sets in and errors and accidents occur. However, if PF sticks rigidly to pure 'aviation', in a dogmatic and simplistic way, then opportunities to monitor the other pilot are missed. Monitoring is a two way street.
So, avoid distraction and you are well on the way to avoiding becoming another incident/accident statistic. At the same time, don't be a distraction dogmatist - use your judgement to decide how much you need to be involved in monitoring the other pilot and the systems. Use your judgement wisely, and you will be part of a highly effective crew. Use it poorly, and you reduce the effectiveness of the crew.
The statistics suggest that distraction is a contributing cause to over half of all aviation accidents. So , as an industry, we clearly need to try to improve our performance.
An important skill for pilots is self discipline, and this is the skill that needs to come to the fore in avoiding distraction. Many airline's procedures enforce a 'sterile cockpit', whereby all extraneous conversation is banned during busy phases of flight. Typical rules are 'sterile' below 10,000', or 'sterile' in all climbs and descents. When I review distraction based incidents that I have been involved in, the vast majority would not have happened if, on that day, I had been fully adhering to the sterile cockpit rule as well as I normally aim to do.
The lesson is clear - do not cause distraction by breaking the sterile cockpit rule, and do not join in when others risk distraction by breaking the sterile cockpit rule.
Of course distraction isn't only self-induced. When a warning system massage occurs, it is inevitable that all the crew will be drawn to the message, whether it be a remote warning, or on ECAM/EICAS. Once again though, we need to train ourselves to have the self discipline to react correctly. The PF either has to steel them-self to resist the temptation to get involved or, if workload is low, only have a quick look in order to gather some independent information.
This is why judgement and self discipline are such crucial pilot skills. If PF gets involved too much with identifying and analysing the problem, then distraction sets in and errors and accidents occur. However, if PF sticks rigidly to pure 'aviation', in a dogmatic and simplistic way, then opportunities to monitor the other pilot are missed. Monitoring is a two way street.
So, avoid distraction and you are well on the way to avoiding becoming another incident/accident statistic. At the same time, don't be a distraction dogmatist - use your judgement to decide how much you need to be involved in monitoring the other pilot and the systems. Use your judgement wisely, and you will be part of a highly effective crew. Use it poorly, and you reduce the effectiveness of the crew.
Friday, 26 August 2011
High Performance Tasks
Although psychologists have offered the aviation industry a lot of specific advice recently, much of what we do comes under the general title of 'High Performance Tasks'. The selection and training of pilots is designed to ensure that only those candidates who are capable of performing at a high level reach military cockpits or commercial flight decks. nevertheless, once on the 'front line' not all pilots perform as well as the most effective crews. So let's review the aspects of high performance tasks:
Extensive practise is required.
The most effective crews seek out opportunities for self learning, maybe not every day, but regularly. They revise the manuals routinely, and don't wait until just before the next line or simulator check. They hand fly the aircraft, but only when appropriate - there are too many hand flying 'aces' who's knowledge of the autoflight systems are woefully inadequate. Equally, there are pilots who rarely hand fly and are always out of practise. It cannot be emphasised enough that experience only comes from regular, focused, practise, not the hours or years in the job.
Substantial numbers of candidates fail to achieve proficiency.
Hopefully, those that are on the line have already passed this hurdle, but there is no room for complacency.
Performance of experts is qualitatively different to novices
Once again, experienced doesn't necessarily mean expert. The experts have put in time and effort to achieve the skill levels that they demonstrate.
One of the aims of the extensive practise mentioned above is to 'automate' a task in our brain. An automated task is one that can be rapidly executed with economy of effort. To become automated, the skill or task requires extensive practise - not just a few minutes thought before a check. Mentally and physically rehearsing a drill and the location of the switches will all help on that 'dark and stormy night' when life gets busy.
For the multi-crew pilots though, a word of caution - none of this means that hands should be flashing around the flight deck like lightning. The other pilot should never be taken by surprise by your actions. Often the most effective way to achieve this is to get the other pilot to carry out the action on your command. Funny old thing, that's generally what the check list instructions say.
Extensive practise is required.
The most effective crews seek out opportunities for self learning, maybe not every day, but regularly. They revise the manuals routinely, and don't wait until just before the next line or simulator check. They hand fly the aircraft, but only when appropriate - there are too many hand flying 'aces' who's knowledge of the autoflight systems are woefully inadequate. Equally, there are pilots who rarely hand fly and are always out of practise. It cannot be emphasised enough that experience only comes from regular, focused, practise, not the hours or years in the job.
Substantial numbers of candidates fail to achieve proficiency.
Hopefully, those that are on the line have already passed this hurdle, but there is no room for complacency.
Performance of experts is qualitatively different to novices
Once again, experienced doesn't necessarily mean expert. The experts have put in time and effort to achieve the skill levels that they demonstrate.
One of the aims of the extensive practise mentioned above is to 'automate' a task in our brain. An automated task is one that can be rapidly executed with economy of effort. To become automated, the skill or task requires extensive practise - not just a few minutes thought before a check. Mentally and physically rehearsing a drill and the location of the switches will all help on that 'dark and stormy night' when life gets busy.
For the multi-crew pilots though, a word of caution - none of this means that hands should be flashing around the flight deck like lightning. The other pilot should never be taken by surprise by your actions. Often the most effective way to achieve this is to get the other pilot to carry out the action on your command. Funny old thing, that's generally what the check list instructions say.
Thursday, 25 August 2011
The Power of Attitude
As a student in flying training, attitude was often mentioned in debriefs. Negative or bad attitudes were frowned upon, and good or positive attitudes were commended.
In my current airline we have an excellent Pilot Skills List to use as a debriefing tool or for self analysis, and yet not one of the 36 key skills on the list mentions attitude. Plenty of the elements of an appropriate attitude warrant a mention, but not the word itself. Perhaps, in a desire to drill down into the elements of what constitutes an effective pilot, we have lost sight of such a useful word.
To me, the simplest description of the elements of a high performance task such as flying is that it consists of Knowledge, Skill, and Attitude. For many years the emphasis in training was on knowledge in depth, and skill retention. Attitude, while often mentioned, was self taught to a large extent.
Sadly, the knowledge requirement has now been reduced to 'need to know to operate'. However, the most effective pilots are not content with that level and seek out more in depth knowledge. Others would do well to emulate them.
Similarly, skill levels at the end of conversion training are the minimum required to pass the Skills Test. The effective pilots find ways to regularly practise and improve their skill. Once again, others would do well to emulate them, and not just before the next sim check.
Attitude though is what I want to discuss in this post.
In the context of flying and other high performance tasks, attitude can be described as a combination of understanding and confidence. The understanding part reflects back to the knowledge element - knowledge without understanding leads to 'barrack room lawyers' who can quote all the rules but not understand the content or context. So what I want to concentrate on is the 'confidence' part of attitude.
Most of what follows is derived from the work of Dr Martin Seligman, an American who worked with depressed patients.
Dr Seligman coined the phrase 'Learned Optimism' because he wanted to teach his depressed patients the benefits of a more optimistic outlook. In our context 'Learned Optimism' is attractive because of what it can help us with in both task management and dealing with poor performance. Nevertheless, Dr Seligman does caution against being a total optimist - it does need to be tempered with realism!
First, a quick quiz:
What best predicts success?
A. IQ
B. Attitude
C. Educational attainment
D. Genetics
Answer: B
So, let's look at attitude to failure or poor performance.
For a pessimist, failure is personal, pervasive, and persistant.
For an optimist though, failure is temporary, is to learn from, is to change because of, and is a step towards success. As an aside, successful salesmen use the last point all the time, they treat each lost sale as a good thing because it puts them one step closer to the next closed deal.
It turns out in studies that attitude predicts success, attitude shapes mood, and attitude is contagious. The issue with having a pessimist in the crew is that they awfulise or catastrophise instead of devoting capacity to solving the problem. By taking it personally, the pessimists links their attitude to the event, but this cannot be true. The attitude causes the emotional response to the event, not the event itself.
Attitude also affects crew performance. The attitude of each crew member will be reflected back in the performance and behaviour of other crew members.
It should also be emphasised that, in an instructional or examining environment, the attitude of the instructor or examiner when setting the scene in the briefing is crucial to getting the best out of the candidates.
So, don't waste mental capacity on worrying about the problem. Accept that it happened, even if you were partly to blame, and get on with fixing or mitigating the resulting mess. Of course, in an ideal world, your knowledge, skill and attitude would have reduced your chance of getting into trouble in the first place, but even the best crews get in trouble, it's then about finding the most effective way out.
In my current airline we have an excellent Pilot Skills List to use as a debriefing tool or for self analysis, and yet not one of the 36 key skills on the list mentions attitude. Plenty of the elements of an appropriate attitude warrant a mention, but not the word itself. Perhaps, in a desire to drill down into the elements of what constitutes an effective pilot, we have lost sight of such a useful word.
To me, the simplest description of the elements of a high performance task such as flying is that it consists of Knowledge, Skill, and Attitude. For many years the emphasis in training was on knowledge in depth, and skill retention. Attitude, while often mentioned, was self taught to a large extent.
Sadly, the knowledge requirement has now been reduced to 'need to know to operate'. However, the most effective pilots are not content with that level and seek out more in depth knowledge. Others would do well to emulate them.
Similarly, skill levels at the end of conversion training are the minimum required to pass the Skills Test. The effective pilots find ways to regularly practise and improve their skill. Once again, others would do well to emulate them, and not just before the next sim check.
Attitude though is what I want to discuss in this post.
In the context of flying and other high performance tasks, attitude can be described as a combination of understanding and confidence. The understanding part reflects back to the knowledge element - knowledge without understanding leads to 'barrack room lawyers' who can quote all the rules but not understand the content or context. So what I want to concentrate on is the 'confidence' part of attitude.
Most of what follows is derived from the work of Dr Martin Seligman, an American who worked with depressed patients.
Dr Seligman coined the phrase 'Learned Optimism' because he wanted to teach his depressed patients the benefits of a more optimistic outlook. In our context 'Learned Optimism' is attractive because of what it can help us with in both task management and dealing with poor performance. Nevertheless, Dr Seligman does caution against being a total optimist - it does need to be tempered with realism!
First, a quick quiz:
What best predicts success?
A. IQ
B. Attitude
C. Educational attainment
D. Genetics
Answer: B
So, let's look at attitude to failure or poor performance.
For a pessimist, failure is personal, pervasive, and persistant.
For an optimist though, failure is temporary, is to learn from, is to change because of, and is a step towards success. As an aside, successful salesmen use the last point all the time, they treat each lost sale as a good thing because it puts them one step closer to the next closed deal.
It turns out in studies that attitude predicts success, attitude shapes mood, and attitude is contagious. The issue with having a pessimist in the crew is that they awfulise or catastrophise instead of devoting capacity to solving the problem. By taking it personally, the pessimists links their attitude to the event, but this cannot be true. The attitude causes the emotional response to the event, not the event itself.
Attitude also affects crew performance. The attitude of each crew member will be reflected back in the performance and behaviour of other crew members.
It should also be emphasised that, in an instructional or examining environment, the attitude of the instructor or examiner when setting the scene in the briefing is crucial to getting the best out of the candidates.
So, don't waste mental capacity on worrying about the problem. Accept that it happened, even if you were partly to blame, and get on with fixing or mitigating the resulting mess. Of course, in an ideal world, your knowledge, skill and attitude would have reduced your chance of getting into trouble in the first place, but even the best crews get in trouble, it's then about finding the most effective way out.
Monday, 22 August 2011
RPM is Life
There are no longer any Harriers operating in the RAF. This is a shame, as it was a demanding but fun jet to fly.
In the old days though, before a pilot's first deployment to operate from remote woodland sites, it was the squadron QFI's job (QFI = Qualified Flying Instructor) to make sure that the youngsters were prepared for life in the field. The bit that sticks in my mind was the importance of engine RPM. The QFI would lead a discussion about parameters that would lead to a decision to eject during a take off. In terms of engine thrust, if you didn't have enough engine RPM, you didn't have enough thrust. There simply wasn't time for analysis and the trees were rushing up fast. On my squadron, the discussion would always end with the QFI asking 'What is RPM?', and the only acceptable answer was 'RPM is life!'
Armed with that simple philosophy, we would head off into the woods for 2 weeks of fun and games. Day one's first challenge was to find the deployed site, bearing in mind that it was camouflaged. Then you need to locate the 50' square landing pad, and establish a high hover at 100' in order to avoid damaging the surrounding trees. As you won't see the pad from the hover, dayglo makers are arranged beyond it so that you can position in the centre of the pad. However, the markers will put your head in the centre of the pad, and you need to land your 35' long jet in the middle, not your head. You finally see the pad as you descend through 20'. Before then you need to have gently moved forward, without references, so that you are in the correct place. After that it's simply a matter of cushioning the landing with power, slamming the thrust lever closed exactly as the jet touches down to avoid a 'power bounce', standing on the brakes to arrest any forward movement, quickly selecting the nozzles forward to avoid melting the pad and remembering to breathe. Did I mention that due to performance issues in the summer, you probably only had about 2 minutes to tanks dry when you came into the hover, and sometimes less?
In comparison, the take off was a rather more agricultural affair. Check the engine acceleration during taxy out by slamming the throttle open and checking the time from idle to mid range power, If that was correct, then mid range to full power should take less than 3 seconds. Remember 'RPM is Life', but if that RPM isn't achieved in 3 seconds, then you will still hit the trees at the end of the strip. So, having checked the 'accels', we are confident that the thrust will be delivered, but when do we rotate the nozzles to get airborne? On a runway it is done at a pre-computed speed. On grass though, the bouncing around means you can't even see the instruments, never mind what's written on them! So it's back to our friend the dayglo marker. The take off run is precomputed, the distance paced out, and a marker is placed abeam that point. Slam the throttle open at the right place, rotate the nozzles abeam the marker, and you miss the trees - simples.
Then, rush around at 420 knots and 250' for half an hour, run out of fuel, return to the site, refuel, and repeat. Do this 5 or 6 times in the day, then help mates to assemble 12' square heavy canvas tent, take tea, find nearest pub, and later retire back to tent and 'green worm' sleeping bag. Repeat process for 5 days, party hard at the weekend, repeat for another 5 days, then recover the jets to main base trying not to fall asleep during the transit back.
If, at any stage of the process, you forget that 'RPM is Life'...the consequences are not good.
As, I made clear at the beginning, there are no new Harrier pilots in the UK to pass this advice on to. Nevertheless, the point is clear - don't forget the basics
In my current job examining on and operating the Boeing 757 & 767, I hear all sorts of techniques for how to flare the jet on landing. Most of them work, but none of them are consistently better than the simple advice in the manual. Whenever a pilot is struggling and asks me for advice about landing, I point them to the manual - don't forget the basics.
Most instructors and examiners are not Skygods, we're just average Joe's - but with a passion for the job, a knowledge of the manuals and regulations, and enough skill to get the job done.
So, if you ever get the chance to fly the Harrier, remember - RPM is Life!
For the rest of us - never forget the basics - keep your knowledge up to date, keep your skill levels current, and apply your craft with judgement, control, and discipline.
In the old days though, before a pilot's first deployment to operate from remote woodland sites, it was the squadron QFI's job (QFI = Qualified Flying Instructor) to make sure that the youngsters were prepared for life in the field. The bit that sticks in my mind was the importance of engine RPM. The QFI would lead a discussion about parameters that would lead to a decision to eject during a take off. In terms of engine thrust, if you didn't have enough engine RPM, you didn't have enough thrust. There simply wasn't time for analysis and the trees were rushing up fast. On my squadron, the discussion would always end with the QFI asking 'What is RPM?', and the only acceptable answer was 'RPM is life!'
Armed with that simple philosophy, we would head off into the woods for 2 weeks of fun and games. Day one's first challenge was to find the deployed site, bearing in mind that it was camouflaged. Then you need to locate the 50' square landing pad, and establish a high hover at 100' in order to avoid damaging the surrounding trees. As you won't see the pad from the hover, dayglo makers are arranged beyond it so that you can position in the centre of the pad. However, the markers will put your head in the centre of the pad, and you need to land your 35' long jet in the middle, not your head. You finally see the pad as you descend through 20'. Before then you need to have gently moved forward, without references, so that you are in the correct place. After that it's simply a matter of cushioning the landing with power, slamming the thrust lever closed exactly as the jet touches down to avoid a 'power bounce', standing on the brakes to arrest any forward movement, quickly selecting the nozzles forward to avoid melting the pad and remembering to breathe. Did I mention that due to performance issues in the summer, you probably only had about 2 minutes to tanks dry when you came into the hover, and sometimes less?
In comparison, the take off was a rather more agricultural affair. Check the engine acceleration during taxy out by slamming the throttle open and checking the time from idle to mid range power, If that was correct, then mid range to full power should take less than 3 seconds. Remember 'RPM is Life', but if that RPM isn't achieved in 3 seconds, then you will still hit the trees at the end of the strip. So, having checked the 'accels', we are confident that the thrust will be delivered, but when do we rotate the nozzles to get airborne? On a runway it is done at a pre-computed speed. On grass though, the bouncing around means you can't even see the instruments, never mind what's written on them! So it's back to our friend the dayglo marker. The take off run is precomputed, the distance paced out, and a marker is placed abeam that point. Slam the throttle open at the right place, rotate the nozzles abeam the marker, and you miss the trees - simples.
Then, rush around at 420 knots and 250' for half an hour, run out of fuel, return to the site, refuel, and repeat. Do this 5 or 6 times in the day, then help mates to assemble 12' square heavy canvas tent, take tea, find nearest pub, and later retire back to tent and 'green worm' sleeping bag. Repeat process for 5 days, party hard at the weekend, repeat for another 5 days, then recover the jets to main base trying not to fall asleep during the transit back.
If, at any stage of the process, you forget that 'RPM is Life'...the consequences are not good.
As, I made clear at the beginning, there are no new Harrier pilots in the UK to pass this advice on to. Nevertheless, the point is clear - don't forget the basics
In my current job examining on and operating the Boeing 757 & 767, I hear all sorts of techniques for how to flare the jet on landing. Most of them work, but none of them are consistently better than the simple advice in the manual. Whenever a pilot is struggling and asks me for advice about landing, I point them to the manual - don't forget the basics.
Most instructors and examiners are not Skygods, we're just average Joe's - but with a passion for the job, a knowledge of the manuals and regulations, and enough skill to get the job done.
So, if you ever get the chance to fly the Harrier, remember - RPM is Life!
For the rest of us - never forget the basics - keep your knowledge up to date, keep your skill levels current, and apply your craft with judgement, control, and discipline.
Saturday, 20 August 2011
Cause and Effect
As automation has taken over more and more of the manual tasks, the primary role of the pilot has has become more about monitoring and decision making than about direct control. Much of the information that comes to the pilot is low key and routine. Nevertheless, it is crucial that each and every piece of information is checked for importance and relevance.
A simple way to discipline yourself to follow this advice is to practise monitoring of 'cause and effect'. Each time a piece of information pops up - check for the expected effect, and don't just accept the information blindly.
If you're cruising along on a pre-planned course, and ATC then ask you to maintain present heading, is it too much trouble to suspend admin tasks, crank down the range on the TCAS display (AIS for seafarers), and start to analyse why ATC want to take closer control of your course?
If a centralised warning caption (ECAM/EICAS) comes on, check the remote system lights for confirmation.
There are many other examples. By getting into a routine of checking for cause and effect, and 'automating' that routine by practise, it means that on the dark and stormy night when all hell breaks loose you will be well practised at confidently sorting the important from the trivial and the real from the false.
By happy coincidence, a side effect of this routine is to build in a pause to the proceedings, which should assist in the process of avoiding rushing into an incorrect reaction. Sitting on your hands to avoid the rush is basic advice, but checking for 'cause and effect' gives you something to do in the meantime.
The effective crews do this all the time, so it makes sense to emulate them in order to join them.
A simple way to discipline yourself to follow this advice is to practise monitoring of 'cause and effect'. Each time a piece of information pops up - check for the expected effect, and don't just accept the information blindly.
If you're cruising along on a pre-planned course, and ATC then ask you to maintain present heading, is it too much trouble to suspend admin tasks, crank down the range on the TCAS display (AIS for seafarers), and start to analyse why ATC want to take closer control of your course?
If a centralised warning caption (ECAM/EICAS) comes on, check the remote system lights for confirmation.
There are many other examples. By getting into a routine of checking for cause and effect, and 'automating' that routine by practise, it means that on the dark and stormy night when all hell breaks loose you will be well practised at confidently sorting the important from the trivial and the real from the false.
By happy coincidence, a side effect of this routine is to build in a pause to the proceedings, which should assist in the process of avoiding rushing into an incorrect reaction. Sitting on your hands to avoid the rush is basic advice, but checking for 'cause and effect' gives you something to do in the meantime.
The effective crews do this all the time, so it makes sense to emulate them in order to join them.
Thursday, 18 August 2011
Train for the Process, not the Event
When learning or revising for how to handle abnormal situations, it's tempting to try to build a mental 'library' of events and how you would deal with them. However, on a complex aircraft, there are just too many.
A far more effective technique is to learn a single method for dealing with any threat or error. This method can then be applied to whatever comes along.
The memory capacity that has been freed up by not learning multiple events can be better used for technical knowledge. That way, even if presented with a checklist that you have never seen, the drill is likely to be carried out correctly as each step will make sense. If you have merely learned the steps in the checklist, there is no context, and it is all too easy to mis-read an instruction or select the wrong control.
To be clear, those who train for the process are only highly effective if they make the effort to gather the technical knowledge to allow the method to work. Most current conversion courses are based getting the candidates to a 'need to know to operate' level of knowledge. While this level is adequate, it is also the bare minimum. It leaves no margin for 'bad hair days' and should be seen as just a starting level. Crews who aspire to high performance will not be satisfied with this level of knowledge.
In a similar vein, in the early days of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training, crews were encouraged to build a library of 'mental models' of situations, and then select the appropriate one for a given situation. It has now been recognised that, just like learning checklists, this is too rigid, and real life isn't that simple or clear. The basic idea is still valid though, as long as we think more in terms of 'mental representations' than models. We may not have been faced with the exact situation previously, but if it is broadly similar to a previous experience, then we are likely to deal with it in a calmer and more effective way.
WARNING: None of this advice is intended to override the manufacturers checklist instructions.
A far more effective technique is to learn a single method for dealing with any threat or error. This method can then be applied to whatever comes along.
The memory capacity that has been freed up by not learning multiple events can be better used for technical knowledge. That way, even if presented with a checklist that you have never seen, the drill is likely to be carried out correctly as each step will make sense. If you have merely learned the steps in the checklist, there is no context, and it is all too easy to mis-read an instruction or select the wrong control.
To be clear, those who train for the process are only highly effective if they make the effort to gather the technical knowledge to allow the method to work. Most current conversion courses are based getting the candidates to a 'need to know to operate' level of knowledge. While this level is adequate, it is also the bare minimum. It leaves no margin for 'bad hair days' and should be seen as just a starting level. Crews who aspire to high performance will not be satisfied with this level of knowledge.
In a similar vein, in the early days of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training, crews were encouraged to build a library of 'mental models' of situations, and then select the appropriate one for a given situation. It has now been recognised that, just like learning checklists, this is too rigid, and real life isn't that simple or clear. The basic idea is still valid though, as long as we think more in terms of 'mental representations' than models. We may not have been faced with the exact situation previously, but if it is broadly similar to a previous experience, then we are likely to deal with it in a calmer and more effective way.
WARNING: None of this advice is intended to override the manufacturers checklist instructions.
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